Prescriptions, medications, and pills play an enormous role in modern medicine. Thousands of drugs such as acetaminophen, valium, or ibuprofen have been manufactured to treat unique and specific illnesses ranging from schizophrenia to heart disease. Typically, the medication people receive at pharmacies—over-the-counter or prescriptions from doctors—comes in plain pills or tablets. Behind the bland appearance of solid colored pills lies an extensive process of preparing medication in order to make the chemical compounds of a plant, insect, fungi, or bacteria into the pills that are sold in pharmacies.
To begin, in order to extract chemical compounds from plants, scientists must isolate separate compounds. For example, plants must be ground in a mortar where a solvent, usually a liquid substance, is added to separate soluble compounds from insoluble compounds. In terms of extracting from medicinal plants, the solvent is commonly known as the menstruum. The menstruum used depends on the type of plant and bioactive compound. Usually, solvents like water are used to separate polar compounds in a process called liquid-liquid extraction during which compounds are separated by their relative solubility. Techniques to further separate compounds include chromatography—the process of differentiating between compounds based on the speed at which they pass through a filter—and distillation—the process of differentiating substances based on boiling points. Scientists continue to run these procedures until the desirable, pure compound is isolated.
Next, scientists run preliminary tests, often called phytochemical screenings, to analyze the
components of an extract; for example, these analyses detect the presence of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. To detect protein, for instance, the Biuret test may be performed to detect the presence of a peptide bond by producing a violet color when a protein is present.
In the process of manufacturing medicine, one of the most important steps involves determining the specific effect of a compound on organs or body systems. Many analytical chemists use published literature and vast chemical databases to first identify a specific compound based on its molecular arrangement and chemical bonds. Techniques such as mass spectroscopy, ultraviolet spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and infrared spectroscopy play an important role in helping chemists identify these molecules. Mass spectroscopy, for example, identifies compounds based on their chemical structure and molecular weight.
After identifying the compound, scientists must analyze and investigate how a specific bioactive compound changes the characteristics of a cell or body process. In the past few decades, phenotypic screening has become a popular method in place of traditional target-based screening, which requires knowledge of the specific drug and its role. Phenotypic screening does not require specific prior information and thus sets the stage for a new, modern way of targeting complex diseases and developing first-class drugs. The two most commonly used types of phenotypic screening are in vitro, literally meaning “in glass,” or in vivo, meaning “in live organisms.” In “in vitro” testing, a selected compound is introduced to a cell in a controlled setting, like a laboratory, where its effects can be closely monitored and studied. In vitro research poses significant advantages as scientists can perform detailed analysis in a controlled physical and chemical environment where test animals do not have to be used. “In vivo,” on the other hand, introduces a compound to a live organism under laboratory conditions. The use of living organisms allows scientists to more accurately view the complex effects of a substance on real body systems, and these studies generally provide crucial information regarding possible side effects of drugs.
Understanding the role of drugs—whether it blocks chemical signals or sends specific signals—and utilizing this knowledge in real-life applications is crucial to biochemistry. Only with information about the extraction process and the effects of a bioactive compound can manufacturing companies begin to create pills or medication that can be consumed by the public. The long process of creating simply, compact medication from a plant is often overlooked but is essential in providing the wide array of targeted treatments available in healthcare today, including the rod-shaped pills we are so often prescribed.